Cassette recombination dynamics within chromosomal integrons are regulated by toxin–antitoxin systems

Integrons are adaptive bacterial devices that rearrange promoter less gene cassettes into variable ordered arrays under stress conditions, to sample combinatorial phenotypic diversity. Chromosomal integrons often carry hundreds of silent gene cassettes, with integrase-mediated recombination leading to rampant DNA excision and integration, posing a potential threat to genome integrity. How this activity is regulated and controlled, particularly through selective pressures, to maintain such large cassette arrays is unknown. Here we show a key role of promoter-containing toxin–antitoxin (TA) cassettes as abortive systems that kill the cell when the overall cassette excision rate is too high. These results highlight the importance of TA cassettes regulating the cassette recombination dynamics and provide insight into the evolution and success of integrons in bacterial genomes. Teaser The accumulation of cassette functions in integrons is ensured by toxin–antitoxin systems which kill the cell when the cassette excision rate is too high. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.