Vulnerability of Passive Microwave Snowfall Retrievals to Physical Properties of Snowpack: A Perspective From Dense Media Radiative Transfer Theory

The uncertainty of passive microwave retrievals of snowfall is notoriously high where high-frequency surface emissivity is significantly reduced and varies markedly in response to the changes in snowpack physical properties. Using the dense media radiative transfer theory, this article studies the potential effects of terrestrial snow-cover depth, density, and grain size on high-frequency channels 89 and 166 GHz of the radiometer onboard the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) core satellite, which are commonly used to capture snowfall scattering signals. Integrating the inference across all feasible grain sizes, ranges of snowpack density and depth are identified over which snowfall scattering signatures can be time-varying and potentially obscured. Using ten years of reanalysis data, the seasonal vulnerability of snowfall retrievals to the changes in snowpack emissivity in the Northern Hemisphere is mapped in a probabilistic sense and connections are made with the uncertainties of the GPM passive microwave snowfall retrievals. It is found that among different snow classes, relatively light Arctic tundra snow in fall, with a density below 260 kg m(-3), and shallow prairie snow during the winter, with a depth of less than 40 cm, can reduce the surface emissivity and obscure the snowfall passive microwave signatures. It is demonstrated that during winter, the highly vulnerable areas are over Kazakhstan and Mongolia with taiga and prairie snow. In the fall, these areas are largely over tundra and taiga snow in north of Russia and the Arctic Archipelagos as well as prairies in Canada and the Great Plains in the United States.