Chemical Characterization and Health Risk Assessment of Particulate Matter from Household Activities in Bamako, Mali, Western Sub-Saharan Africa

Household particulate matter (PM) is a major health concern, especially in developing regions, where biomass fuels are used quantitatively in households. Additionally, the combustion of incense (ICS) and insecticide (IST) is common. This study characterized the PM chemical composition to evaluate its health effects, as such information is lacking in developing regions, including Bamako, Mali. The composition of PM emitted from typical household activities, including cooking and combustion of ICS and IST, was characterized. These contained ions, organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), and metals. The results revealed that the chemical composition varied with emission source and combustion conditions. The dominant ions were Ca2+ (charcoal cooking), K+ (wood cooking) and F- (in ICS and IST). The OC/EC ratio for IST, ICS, wood, and charcoal cooking was 59, 30, 8, and 7, respectively. Moreover, US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) health risk assessment models indicated a higher hazard index (<= 6.04) than the recommended limit (1) for nearly all emission sources. Total-CR was higher than the lower boundary limit (10(-6)) in adults and children. Wood cooking activity and ICS combustion exceeded the unacceptable limit (10(-4)) in children. Our findings highlight the need to develop effective air pollution mitigation strategies for health safety.