A deep learning‐based method for classification, detection, and localization of weeds in turfgrass

BACKGROUND Precision spraying of synthetic herbicides can reduce herbicide input. Previous research demonstrated the effectiveness of using image classification neural networks for detecting weeds growing in turfgrass, but did not attempt to discriminate weed species and locate the weeds on the input images. The objectives of this research were to: (i) investigate the feasibility of training deep learning models using grid cells (subimages) to detect the location of weeds on the image by identifying whether or not the grid cells contain weeds; and (ii) evaluate DenseNet, EfficientNetV2, ResNet, RegNet and VGGNet to detect and discriminate multiple weed species growing in turfgrass (multi-classifier) and detect and discriminate weeds (regardless of weed species) and turfgrass (two-classifier). RESULTS The VGGNet multi-classifier exhibited an F-1 score of 0.950 when used to detect common dandelion and achieved high F-1 scores of >= 0.983 to detect and discriminate the subimages containing dallisgrass, purple nutsedge and white clover growing in bermudagrass turf. DenseNet, EfficientNetV2 and RegNet multi-classifiers exhibited high F-1 scores of >= 0.984 for detecting dallisgrass and purple nutsedge. Among the evaluated neural networks, EfficientNetV2 two-classifier exhibited the highest F-1 scores (>= 0.981) for exclusively detecting and discriminating subimages containing weeds and turfgrass. CONCLUSION The proposed method can accurately identify the grid cells containing weeds and thus precisely locate the weeds on the input images. Overall, we conclude that the proposed method can be used in the machine vision subsystem of smart sprayers to locate weeds and make the decision for precision spraying herbicides onto the individual map cells. (c) 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.