Lead (Pb) Contamination in Agricultural Products and Human Health Risk Assessment in Bangladesh

Lead (Pb) is a widely occurring heavy metal employed in industrial products and hence released into the environment, causing several environmental health risk concerns. This study comprehensively surveyed the literature on Pb contamination in different agricultural foods and food products commonly consumed by Bangladeshi inhabitants and assessed associated cancer and non-cancer health risks. Cereals (i.e., rice, wheat and maize) contained very high concentrations of Pb among the selected food items, the highest was found in wheat (4.04 µg g −1 ), while rice and maize were 2.22 and 1.43 µg g −1 , respectively, that exceeded the maximum allowable concentration (MAC, 0.20 µg g −1 ) for cereals. Vegetables contained higher Pb than the MAC of 0.01 µg g −1 , except for mushroom, green banana, cauliflower and arum. In addition, pulses also contained a moderate amount of Pb; however, fruits contained a low level of Pb, except for mangoes. When examining spatial differences in Pb contamination, most districts exhibited high Pb content in cereals; however, vegetables of the Tangail district exhibited the highest Pb concentrations (2.17 µg g −1 ), originating from industrial operations and vehicular emissions. In terms of human health risk assessment, it was observed that consumption of rice, zucchini, tesla gourd, sponge gourd, okra, drumstick lib, chili and cabbage might pose non-cancer health risks (THQs > 1); however, fruits and pulses do not pose any non-cancer health risks to Bangladeshi residents. Most of the cereals and vegetables showed a higher value than 10 −6 , indicating a potential cancer risk; however, fruits and pulses showed lower risk only marginally exceeding the lower allowable limit (i.e., 10 −6 ). Graphical abstract