Progress in 3D printing for bone tissue engineering: a review

Effective clinical methods for large bone defects are not yet available on account of the complex intrinsic structure and mechanical characteristics of natural bone tissue. It remains a challenge to restore bone damage to its original form by tissue engineering. With the continuous development of three-dimensional (3D) printing in recent years, the emergence of new technical supports and material innovations has established the foundation for bone tissue engineering (BTE). 3D printing has significant advantages for personalized treatment, as it allows for the specific fabrication of scaffolds with appropriate size, shape and intrinsic structural characteristics via patients’ computerized axial tomography scan or magnetic resonance imaging. In this review, we first systematically reviewed the development of 3D printing, printing methods and the selection of printing inks, then focused on the application of high-strength hydrogels in 3D printing for BTE. A brief anticipation of the future development of 3D printing was presented. Graphical abstract