Environmental impacts, human health, and energy consumption of nitrogen management for maize production in subtropical region

Over-application of fertilizers could not improve crop yield and agronomic efficiency, but result in increasing nitrogen (N) surplus and adverse effects on the ecosystem sustainability. Although some previous studies have addressed one or a few environmental aspects in crop production, an integrated assessment for the effects of N fertilizer on multiple environmental impacts, and the optional steps of normalization and weighting is required. A consecutive 2-year plot-based field experiment was conducted with five N fertilizer levels (0, 90, 180, 270, and 360 kg N ha−1) in maize production at three sites in Southwest China, to evaluate the environmental performance and sustainability through joint use of life cycle assessment (LCA) and energy consumption analysis. Results demonstrated that the optimal N rate (180 kg N ha−1) showed greater potential for maintaining high yield (achieved 86% of the yield potential) and reducing the global warming (− 31%), acidification (− 47%), eutrophication (− 44%) compared to farmers’ practice, and energy depletion potentials, by reducing pollutants emission during the production and transportation of N fertilizer and Nr losses at farm stage. Optimal N treatment indirectly reduced the land use, life-cycle human toxicity, aquatic eco-toxicity, and terrestrial eco-toxicity potentials by improving grain yield and agronomic efficiency. In addition, the optimal N treatment reduced the energy consumption by enhancing the energy use efficiency (EUE) (+ 74%) and reducing non-renewable energy form (− 45%) than the farmer’s practice. This study will provide comprehensive information for both scientists and farmers involved in maize production and N management in subtropical region.