The presence of chromium in agricultural systems. a comprehensive review

Currently, the entire world is facing major challenges related to agricultural practices and heavy metals contaminations of agricultural systems and food production. On the other hand, the structure, texture, and properties of the soil have deteriorated as a result of intensive conventional agriculture based on the addition of different inputs. Along with these, toxic metals affect agricultural soils, crops, food chain, becoming a major threat to living systems. Among these is chromium (Cr), an element naturally occurring in rocky soils and volcanic dust. The increased use of chromium in several multiple activities causes soil and water contamination. Differently from other heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and copper, chromium presents different degrees of toxicity depending on its chemical form. In the present review, we present data regarding chromium abundance in agricultural systems, factors favouring the absorption in the plant and bioaccumulation in different organs and tissues, bioaccumulation and translocation factors, its toxicity in plants, animals, and human through the food chain, and how it can be quantified using different types of analysis.