From metal-organic framework powders to shaped solids: recent developments and challenges

Metal-organic frameworks represent a class of porous materials which have developed considerably over the past few years. Their highly porous structure makes them outperform conventional adsorbents in hot topics such as dihydrogen and methane storage, and carbon dioxide capture. Their consequent modularity, based on the assembly of organic linkers and metal ions or clusters, also brings novel perspectives in catalysis, sensing and drug delivery just to name a few. However, one of the main bottlenecks to their broader use remains their shaping. Especially, shaped materials should present long-term mechanical stability as well as preserve their physical and chemical properties. This makes shaping of MOFs a special case as their thermal and chemical stabilities remain a downside as compared to other traditional porous materials such as silicas and zeolites today. Therefore, ever-increasing efforts have been devoted to the shaping of these materials. In this review, the state of the art for the preparation of shaped 3D MOF-based materials will be presented. Emphasis will be given to the final physical and chemical properties of the shaped solids comparatively to the initial powders, when data are available. In the first part, traditional techniques based on applying a significant force to MOF-based powders will be reviewed. These include pelletization, granulation, and extrusion, which generally lead to an increase of the final volumetric gas uptake of the objects. At the same time, the advantages and disadvantages of each technique will be discussed as well as the main outcome on the final objects. In the second part, the focus will be on newly-emerging techniques such as 3D printing and spray drying. The former also maximizes the volumetric gas uptake of the final materials, and for both techniques the quality of the final objects heavily relies on the working parameters. Finally, the third part will include the so-called "phase separation" shaping techniques which are for the most part performed without using special techniques. This implies shaping via physical and chemical phenomena such as sublimation and precipitation. Subsequently, a discussion on the performance of these materials for adsorption-based applications will be provided. Finally, perspectives and future outlook will be discussed.