Additive manufacturing of 3D batteries: a perspective

Additive manufacturing (AM) enables the fabrication of battery materials with complex geometries. When battery components can take arbitrary form factors, opportunities emerge for creating electrode configurations with improved power density, reduced weight, and excellent mechanical stability. We provide a perspective on recent progress in AM of 3D batteries, discussing relevant techniques, materials, designs, and applications. We highlight advantages and limitations associated with battery electrodes fabricated by direct ink writing, fused deposition modeling, vat photopolymerization, and selective laser sintering. Additionally, we discuss optimal geometries and compatible materials for anode, cathode, and electrolyte of fully 3D batteries. To increase transparency and utility in the field, we suggest a standardized set of reporting metrics for 3D batteries. Finally, we identify key opportunities for implementation where 3D batteries can provide critical advantages such as shape conformability and the ability to serve as multifunctional or structural components. Graphical abstract