Chronic effects of two rutile TiO 2 nanomaterials in human intestinal and hepatic cell lines

Background TiO 2 nanomaterials (NMs) are present in a variety of food and personal hygiene products, and consumers are exposed daily to these NMs through oral exposition. While the bulk of ingested TiO 2 NMs are eliminated rapidly in stool, a fraction is able to cross the intestinal epithelial barrier and enter systemic circulation from where NMs can be distributed to tissues, primarily liver and spleen. Daily exposure to TiO 2 NMs, in combination with a slow rate of elimination from tissues, results in their accumulation within different tissues. Considerable evidence suggests that following oral exposure to TiO 2 NMs, the presence of NMs in tissues is associated with a number of adverse effects, both in intestine and liver. Although numerous studies have been performed in vitro investigating the acute effects of TiO 2 NMs in intestinal and hepatic cell models, considerably less is known about the effect of repeated exposure on these models. In this study, we investigated the cytotoxic effects of repeated exposure of relevant models of intestine and liver to two TiO 2 NMs differing in hydrophobicity for 24 h, 1 week and 2 weeks at concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 80 µg/cm 2 . To study the persistence of these two NMs in cells, we included a 1-week recovery period following 24 h and 1-week treatments. Cellular uptake by TEM and ToF–SIMS analyses, as well as the viability and pro-inflammatory response were evaluated. Changes in the membrane composition in Caco-2 and HepaRG cells treated with TiO 2 NMs for up to 2 weeks were also studied. Results Despite the uptake of NM-103 and NM-104 in cells, no significant cytotoxic effects were observed in either Caco-2 or HepaRG cells treated for up to 2 weeks at NM concentrations up to 80 µg/cm 2 . In addition, no significant effects on IL-8 secretion were observed. However, significant changes in membrane composition were observed in both cell lines. Interestingly, while most of these phospholipid modifications were reversed following a 1-week recovery, others were not affected by the recovery period. Conclusion These findings indicate that although no clear effects on cytotoxicity were observed following repeated exposure of differentiated Caco-2 and HepaRG cells to TiO 2 NMs, subtle effects on membrane composition could induce potential adverse effects in the long-term.