The dynamics of adaptation to stress from standing genetic variation and de novo mutations

Adaptation from standing genetic variation is an important process underlying evolution in natural populations but we rarely get the opportunity to observe the dynamics of fitness changes in real time. Here, we used the power of microbial experimental evolution and whole population sequencing to track the phenotypic and genomic changes of genetically diverse yeast populations in environments with different stress levels. We found that populations rapidly and in parallel increased in fitness in stressful environments. The founder’s genetic diversity was quickly depleted, however, not to the same degree in all populations and environments. Some populations fixed all ancestral variation in < 30 generations while others maintained diversity across hundreds of generations. We also observed parallelism at the gene and pathway level. Specifically, we detected up to seven genes harbouring multiple independent mutations in different populations, and a general enrichment for mutations affecting downstream effectors of the high-osmolarity-glycerol pathway in three out of four environments. Adaptation to the most stressful environment was characterised by the fast evolution of functional haploidy, likely driven by standing genetic variation. Almost 40% of all populations contained aneuploidies (losses or gains of chromosomes) at least once during experimental evolution. Some aneuploidies were maintained for hundreds of generations in parallel in different replicates, suggesting they were adaptive. This work shows that experimental evolution is a great tool to address the interplay between standing variation and the influx of de novo mutations, leading to a better understanding of the demographic and environmental drivers and constraints of a population’s capacity to adapt to environmental change. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.