Metastable hexagonal close-packed palladium hydride in liquid cell TEM

Metastable phases—kinetically favoured structures—are ubiquitous in nature 1 , 2 . Rather than forming thermodynamically stable ground-state structures, crystals grown from high-energy precursors often initially adopt metastable structures depending on the initial conditions, such as temperature, pressure or crystal size 1 , 3 , 4 . As the crystals grow further, they typically undergo a series of transformations from metastable phases to lower-energy and ultimately energetically stable phases 1 , 3 , 4 . Metastable phases sometimes exhibit superior physicochemical properties and, hence, the discovery and synthesis of new metastable phases are promising avenues for innovations in materials science 1 , 5 . However, the search for metastable materials has mainly been heuristic, performed on the basis of experiences, intuition or even speculative predictions, namely ‘rules of thumb’. This limitation necessitates the advent of a new paradigm to discover new metastable phases based on rational design. Such a design rule is embodied in the discovery of a metastable hexagonal close-packed (hcp) palladium hydride (PdH x ) synthesized in a liquid cell transmission electron microscope. The metastable hcp structure is stabilized through a unique interplay between the precursor concentrations in the solution: a sufficient supply of hydrogen (H) favours the hcp structure on the subnanometre scale, and an insufficient supply of Pd inhibits further growth and subsequent transition towards the thermodynamically stable face-centred cubic structure. These findings provide thermodynamic insights into metastability engineering strategies that can be deployed to discover new metastable phases.