Radiation safety in the cardiac catheterization laboratory.

Over the years, permissible radiation exposure of operators working with x-ray equipment has become progressively reduced. The number of cardiac catheterizations and related interventional procedures has increased and the procedures have become more prolonged. The patient receives relatively infrequent primary radiation while the operator receives frequent but mainly secondary radiation. The operator uses protective barriers, correct positioning of the patient and careful techniques to reduce radiation exposure. The effects of radiation are cumulative and permanent. They may be stochastic or nonstochastic, and somatic and/or genetic, and onset may be delayed for many years. To minimize exposure of patient and operator, cardiologists need a better understanding of radiation physics and of cardiac x-ray equipment. Technical breakthroughs such as digital imaging, pulse fluoroscopy, reduction of frame rates from 60 or 30 frames/s to 15 frames/s, and progression to the filmless laboratory will substantially reduce radiation. This review discusses current cardiac x-ray equipment, possible future developments, radiation, and techniques for reducing radiation and improving safety in the cardiac catheterization laboratory.