Black-box testing in motor sequence learning

During learning of novel motor sequences, practice leads to the consolidation of hierarchical structures, namely motor chunks, facilitating the accurate execution of sequences at increasing speeds. Recent studies show that such hierarchical structures are largely represented upstream of the primary motor cortex in the motor network, suggesting their function to be more related to the encoding, storage, and retrieval of sequences rather than their sole execution. We isolated different components of motor skill acquisition related to the consolidation of spatiotemporal features and followed their evolution over training. We found that optimal motor skill acquisition relies on the storage of the spatial features of the sequence in memory, followed by the optimization of its execution and increased execution speeds (i.e., a shift in the speed-accuracy trade-off) early in training, supporting the model proposed by Hikosaka in 1999. Contrasting the dynamics of these components during ageing, we identified less-than-optimal mechanisms in older adults explaining the observed differences in performance. We applied noninvasive brain stimulation in an attempt to support the aging brain to compensate for these deficits. The present study found that anodal direct current stimulation applied over the motor cortex restored the mechanisms involved in the consolidation of spatial features, without directly affecting the speed of execution of the sequence. This led older adults to sharply improve their accuracy, resulting in an earlier yet gradual emergence of motor chunks. The results suggest the early storage of the sequence in memory, largely independent of motor practice, is crucial for an optimal motor acquisition and retrieval of this motor behavior. Nevertheless, the consolidation of optimal temporal patterns, detected as motor chunks at a behavioral level, is not a direct consequence of storing the sequence elements, but rather of motor practice. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.