Stalagmite evidence for East Asian winter monsoon variability and 18 O-depleted surface water in the Japan Sea during the last glacial period

In the East Asian monsoon area, stalagmites generally record lower and higher oxygen isotope (δ 18 O) levels during warm humid interglacial and cold dry glacial periods, respectively. Here, we report unusually low stalagmite δ 18 O from the last glacial period (ca. 32.2–22.3 ka) in Fukugaguchi Cave, Niigata Prefecture, Japan, where a major moisture source is the East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) that carries vapor from the warm surface of the Japan Sea. The δ 18 O profile of this stalagmite may imply millennial-scale changes, and high δ 18 O intervals that are related to Dansgaard–Oeschger (D–O) interstadials. More importantly, the stalagmite exhibits low overall δ 18 O values; the mean δ 18 O (− 8.87‰) is distinctly lower than the mid-Holocene mean of another stalagmite from the same cave (4.2–8.2 ka, − 7.64‰). An interpretation assuming a more intense EAWM and greater vapor transportation during the last glacial period, compared with the mid-Holocene, contradicts the limited inflow of the Tsushima Warm Current into the Japan Sea because of lowered sea level. Additionally, our model calculation using δ 18 O data from meteoric water indicated that the amount effect of winter meteoric water was insignificant (1.2‰/1000 mm). Low stalagmite δ 18 O for the last glacial period in Fukugaguchi Cave most likely resulted from 18 O-depleted surface water, which developed in the isolated Japan Sea. The estimated amplitude of the δ 18 O decrease in surface water was ~ 3‰ at most, consistent with the abnormally low values for foraminifera (by ~ 2.5‰) in sediment during the last glacial period, shown by samples collected from the Japan Sea. This is the first terrestrial evidence of 18 O depletion in Japan Sea surface water during the last glacial period.