Birds have peramorphic skulls, too: anatomical network analyses reveal oppositional heterochronies in avian skull evolution

In contrast to the vast majority of reptiles, the skulls of adult crown birds are characterized by a high degree of integration due to bone fusion, e.g., an ontogenetic event generating a net reduction in the number of bones. To understand this process in an evolutionary context, we investigate postnatal ontogenetic changes in the skulls of crown bird and non-avian theropods using anatomical network analysis ( AnNA ). Due to the greater number of bones and bone contacts, early juvenile crown birds have less integrated skulls, resembling their non-avian theropod ancestors, including Archaeopteryx lithographica and Ichthyornis dispars . Phylogenetic comparisons indicate that skull bone fusion and the resulting modular integration represent a peramorphosis (developmental exaggeration of the ancestral adult trait) that evolved late during avialan evolution, at the origin of crown-birds. Succeeding the general paedomorphic shape trend, the occurrence of an additional peramorphosis reflects the mosaic complexity of the avian skull evolution.