Characteristics of environmental factors contributing to ALOS-2 PALSAR wind speed errors

Environmental factors affecting the errors in wind speed estimates were investigated using the Advanced Land Observing Satellite-2 Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar-2 (ALOS-2 PALSAR-2) data for the period from 1 November 2014 to 30 November 2017. In total, 45 ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 Stripmap Fine mode images with horizontal dual-polarization were collected, and the wind speeds were calculated using the L-band Geophysical Model Function (GMF) in 2009. Validation of the SAR-derived wind speeds to in-situ wind, converted to the 10-m neutral wind, resulted in the root-mean-square error of 2.11 ms(-1), bias error of -1.16 m s(-1), and standard deviation of 1.78 m s(-1). Investigation of the wind speed errors revealed the contributions of diverse oceanic environmental factors such as the ship and its side-lobe effect that is negligible at a distance of more than 200% of the ship radius, v-shaped ship wakes are accompanied by the Kelvin waves and turbulent wakes caused by ship movement. The sand ridge, formed due to the interaction of shallow bathymetry and tidal currents, contributed to the wind speed errors of more than 50%. The internal waves caused prominent wind speed errors of more than 100%. The atmospheric gravity waves, generated by the orographic effect, caused wind speed fluctuations up to 13.4 m s(-1). This study addressed the importance of understanding the factors that affect the normalized radar cross-section of the SAR image in order to correctly retrieve wind speeds from SAR data.