Man-made blue and purple barium copper silicate pigments and the pabstite (BaSnSi 3 O 9 ) mystery of ancient Chinese wall paintings from Luoyang

Man-made ancient Chinese barium copper silicate pigments: Chinese (Han) Purple, BaCuSi 2 O 6 ; Chinese (Han) Blue, BaCuSi 4 O 10 ; Chinese Dark Blue, BaCu 2 Si 2 O 7 (in summary called Chinese blues), and platelet-like crystals of BaSnSi 3 O 9 were detected on mural paintings of a tomb in Luoyang City, Henan Province, China, dated to Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–8 AD). The pigments of the LY01 and LY02 samples were analyzed by archaeometrical methods: powder X-ray diffractometry (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM–EDX) and micro-Raman spectroscopy. While the artificial nature of the ancient barium copper silicates was undoubted, the synthetic or mineral origin of BaSnSi 3 O 9 of these murals had to be clarified. Involvement of the rare mineral pabstite Ba(Sn,Ti,Zr)Si 3 O 9 from the Tian Shan mountains could be ruled out due to absence of Ti and Zr in the elemental composition. Tin compounds as admixtures to the lead minerals—the latter required as flux additive for the preparation of the Chinese blues—or tin admixtures to pristine barium starting minerals could be excluded, as well as the use of tin containing mineral mushistonite (CuSn(OH) 6 ), primarily intended to be applied as copper source. Related to the findings for the production of Egyptian Blue (CaCuSi 4 O 10 ), bronze or bronze scrap including also corroded material was used intending copper recycling. For the synthesis of the Luoyang Chinese blues only low amounts of bronze or bronze scrap were required providing the additional advantage to form in presence of air a tin/lead oxide flux with lowered vitrification temperatures and viscosities. This marked the advent of an ‘innovative production technology’ avoiding addition of large amounts of lead minerals as an effective lead-only flux. Despite of the chemical similarity to production of Egyptian Blue, the tin/lead based developments for the Chinese blues were anticipated to be independent excluding technology transfer from ancient Egypt. For further substantiation of the appearance of pabstite in the Luoyang Chinese blues a contemporary independent synthesis was sought, carried out under conditions similar to those of the barium copper silicate syntheses (1000 °C, but absence of a flux) starting from cassiterite (SnO 2 ), quartz (SiO 2 ) and witherite (BaCO 3 ).