Assessment of spring water quality and associated health risks in a high-level natural radiation area, North Iran

In this study, the spring water quality of a high natural background radiation region in North Iran was evaluated by measuring hydrochemical characteristics and concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and activity concentration of radioactive elements. The carcinogenicity potential from exposure to PTEs and radioactive elements was also investigated using probabilistic approach. The hydrochemical properties of water samples revealed that there were two different water types in the study area: (1) non-thermal Ca-HCO3 type and (2) thermal Na-Cl type. The concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mo, Ni, Sb, Zn, and 40 K were within the recommended water quality standard set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Elevated concentrations of As, Mn, Hg, 226 Ra, and 232 Th occur in Na-Cl water type while elevated concentrations of Fe occur in Ca-HCO 3 water type. Also, health complications of dermal contact (via balneology or bathing) are within the safe limits. The major concern regarding the contaminated springs is the possibility of soil and groundwater contamination through uncontrolled runoff and spa effluents. Preventing the spread of toxic constituents in the study area via high-risk spring water requires periodic monitoring, and applying control measures where necessary.