Analysis of neonicotinoid pesticides in the agri-food sector: a critical assessment of the state of the art

Neonicotinoids are systemic pesticides used to control harmful insects. These pesticides, which are nerve agents, cause many harmful effects to insects, especially to individual bees, such as damaging memory and reducing queen numbers. Here, we present a review concerning the determination and control of neonicotinoids residues in the agri-food sector, considered of vital importance to maintain food quality and safety. We discuss the different sample treatments and methods of analysis for the screening and quantification of neonicotinoids. Even though high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection and mass spectrometry (HPLC-UV and HPLC-MS) are the most widely used analytical methods for the determination of these pesticides, there are alternative spectroscopic methods that can provide valuable information. We have thus carried out a critical discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the different sample treatments and different techniques that have been developed in the last decade for the quantification of neonicotinoids in samples from the agri-food sector.