Efficacy of variable density thinning and prescribed fire for restoring forest heterogeneity to mixed-conifer forest in the central Sierra Nevada, CA

•Structural attributes were compared among forests treated with thinning and/or prescribed fire.•High variability thinning was designed to restore structural heterogeneity.•Heterogeneity produced by high variability thinning approached values in old-growth reference stands.•Prescribed fire had less of an effect on stand structure than thinning.•High variability thinning with prescribed fire most closely restored overstory and fuel conditions.