Combined impacts of multiple non-native mammals on two life stages of a critically endangered Neotropical tree

Despite of the widespread co-occurrence of multiple invaders, little is known on their combined ecological impacts and on their effects on different life stages of native species. We assessed the joint impacts of four non-native mammals (cattle, horse, European hare Lepus europaeus , and wild boar Sus scrofa ) on seed surplus and seedling abundance of the Paraná pine ( Araucaria angustifolia ), a critically-endangered species of the Atlantic Forest. We found that its seeds constitute an autumn food resource for a native community richer than previously thought, with 70 bird and mammal species as confirmed or potential seed consumers, of which 40 were not previously recognized as such. We also recorded the number of uneaten seeds and seedlings at the middle-end of autumn under 520 female Paraná pine trees across the species’ distribution and identified signs of the species consuming seeds from each tree through direct observations combined with camera trapping. Most of the sampled trees (98%) were visited by at least one seed consumer species, and over 60% were visited by at least one non-native mammal. Seed surplus strongly declined in the presence of cattle, horses and wild boars, their impacts being additive, whereas the number of seedlings declined in the presence of European hares. Our results emphasize the importance of Paraná pine seeds for native fauna and the additive impact of invaders in a species-rich ecosystem. Seed predation by non-native species reduces the potential regeneration of Paraná pine forests, and may severely reduce food supply for its native consumers.