Adapting to changes in volcanic behaviour: Formal and informal interactions for enhanced risk management at Tungurahua Volcano, Ecuador

•We consider how ‘shadow networks’ help communities adapt to environmental change and uncertainty.•The findings suggest that ‘shadow networks’ have facilitated improvements in hazard monitoring, communication, and in evacuation processes.•There have been improvements in collective responses to volcanic risk, allowing people to maintain their livelihoods.•A step change may now be required to anticipate and respond better to rapid-onset volcanic activity.