Arrival and diversification of mabuyine skinks (Squamata: Scincidae) in the Neotropics based on a fossil-calibrated timetree.

Background. The evolution of South American Mabuyinae skinks holds significant biogeographic interest because its sister lineage is distributed across the African continent and adjacent islands. Moreover, at least one insular species, Trachylepis atlantica, has independently reached the New World through transoceanic dispersal. To clarify the evolutionary history of both Neotropical lineages, this study aimed to infer an updated timescale using the largest species and gene sampling dataset ever assembled for this group. By extending the analysis to the Scincidae family, we could employ fossil information to estimate mabuyinae divergence times and carried out a formal statistical biogeography analysis. To unveil macroevolutionary patterns, we also inferred diversification rates for this lineage and evaluated whether the colonization of South American continent significantly altered the mode of Mabuyinae evolution. Methods. A time-calibrated phylogeny was inferred under the Bayesian framework employing fossil information. This timetree was used to (i) evaluate the historical biogeography of mabuiyines using the statistical approach implemented in BioGeoBEARS; (ii) estimate macroevolutionary diversification rates of the South American Mabuyinae lineages and the patterns of evolution of selected traits, namely, the mode of reproduction, body mass and snout - vent length; (iii) test the hypothesis of differential macroevolutionary patterns in South American lineages in BAMM and GeoSSE; and (iv) re-evaluate the ancestral state of the mode of reproduction of mabuyines. Results. Our results corroborated the hypothesis that the occupation of the South American continent by Mabuyinae consisted of two independent dispersion events that occurred between the Oligocene and the Miocene. We found significant differences in speciation rates between the New World and the remaining Mabuyinae clades only in GeoSSE. The influence of phenotypic traits on diversification rates was not supported by any method. Ancestral state reconstruction suggested that the ancestor of South American mabuyine was likely viviparous. Discussion. Our analyses further corroborated the existence of a transoceanic connection between Africa and South America in the Eocene/Oligocene period (Atlantogea). Following colonization of the isolated South America and subsequent dispersal through the continent by the ancestral mabuyine stock, we detected no difference in macroevolutionary regimes of New World clades. This finding argued against the ecological opportunity model as an explanation for the diversity of living mabuyines.