Seasonality, crop type and crop phenology influence crop damage by wildlife herbivores in Africa and Asia

Wildlife species damaging crops can cause substantial losses to farmers and at the same time create negative attitudes against wildlife and conservation efforts that may result in negative interactions against wildlife and lead to human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). For the analysis of negative interactions between humans and terrestrial wildlife species, a globally applicable scheme for monitoring was developed and applied over 6 years in study areas of two Asian (Nepal and India) and two African (Zambia and Tanzania) countries. Factors influencing crop consumption by eight different groups of herbivores were monitored and analyzed using generalized linear models. Seasonality, crop availability, type and the phenological stage of the crop seem to play an important role in the crop damaging behavior of herbivores. Crop consumers such as elephants ( Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus ), zebra ( Equus quagga spp.) and boars/hogs ( Sus scrofa, Potamocherus larvatus and Phacochoerus africanus ) show preferences for harvested and/or maturing crops. Rhinos ( Rhinoceros unicornis ) and antelopes/deer ( Taurotragus oryx, Aepyceros melampus, Boselaphus tragocamelus and Axis axis ) damage the highest numbers of fields with crops at an intermediate growth stage. The findings of this study can inform management of HWCs in areas where people and wildlife coexist. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the benefits of standardized HWC assessments in order to compare data from different continents and between different species to be able to draw generalized conclusions for the management of HWC.