Surgeon-in-the-Loop 3-D Needle Steering Through Ultrasound-Guided Feedback Control.

Needle deflection during certain minimally invasive percutaneous procedures, such as prostate biopsy or brachytherapy, is undesired and can be reduced through the use of feedback control. This letter uses a depth-dependent reduced-order three-dimensional (3-D) nonholonomic model of needle tip motion to propose a needle deflection controller that works in a surgeon-in-the-loop fashion, where the su...