Constitutional and Functional Small Intestinal Microbiome of Patients With Celiac Disease, First Degree Relatives and Effect of Gluten Free Diet on Them

in three different sections of the intestine (duodenum, jejunum and colon).Results We classified staple foods/plant seeds based on their relative potency to induce innate immune reactions expressed in ng cytokine released per g of dried flour.Modern gluten containing cereals (wheat, rye, barley) contained the highest amount of stimulatory ATIs and TLR4 activating bioactivity, being up to 100-fold higher than gluten-free staples/seeds (e.g., amaranth, corn, rice, oats, potatoe, soy, black beans).There were also marked differences in stimulatory activity within different wheat cultivars, with lower activity in older/ancient variants.Transcript levels of inflammatory markers (MCP-1, IL-8, IFNγ and IL-6) in the intestine were significantly up-regulated after feeding ATIs to C57BL/6 mice kept on a glutenfree diet compared to mice fed with control protein (zein).F4/80 and CD68 positive cells were also increased in the group gavaged with ATIs.Conclusions ATIs from plants and products can be extracted, quantified and their innate stimulatory activity measured using our bioassay.We can classify plants according to stimulatory activity.ATIs activity was also confirmed in-vivo.The in-vitro and in-vivo stimulatory capacity of ATIs is by far highest in gluten containing cereals; ATIs appear to be (major) nutritional trigger of innate immunity with strong implications for celiac disease and related disorders such as "nonceliac gluten sensitivity".