Testosterone might not be necessary to support female aggression in incubating northern cardinals

Testosterone's (T) influence on male aggression has been well established in many vertebrate species, but the impact of T on female aggressive behaviour is poorly understood. Among birds, a link between T and female aggression is plausible, as females of many species exhibit a seasonal peak in T concentrations at the onset of breeding when social instability is greatest and they may have circulating T through much of the breeding season. However, investigations examining the relationship between T and female aggression are few and have yielded conflicting results, with experimentally or endogenously elevated T supporting aggressive behaviour in females of some species but not others, and T elevating with aggression at some points of the reproductive cycle but not others. We examined the relationship between endogenous levels of T and female aggression in the northern cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis, a resident temperate species in which pairs exhibit prolonged territoriality and females have measurable levels of T year-round, including all stages of reproduction (incubation, nestling feeding, etc.). Using simulated nest intrusions, we assessed aggressive responses of incubating females to intrasexual 'intruders' at the nest and quantified T levels after each aggressive encounter. Displays of aggression towards 'intruders' varied among females; yet, individuals showing greater levels of aggression did not demonstrate higher levels of T. These results imply that T might not support maternal aggression in this species. (C) 2015 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.