His-tagged norovirus-like particles: A versatile platform for cellular delivery and surface display.

In addition to vaccines, noninfectious virus-like particles (VLPs) that mimic the viral capsid show an attractive possibility of presenting immunogenic epitopes or targeting molecules on their surface. Here, functionalization of norovirus-derived VLPs by simple non-covalent conjugation of various molecules is shown. By using the affinity between a surface-exposed polyhistidine-tag and multivalent tris-nitrilotriacetic acid (trisNTA), fluorescent dye molecules and streptavidin–biotin conjugated to trisNTA are displayed on the VLPs to demonstrate the use of these VLPs as easily modifiable nanocarriers as well as a versatile vaccine platform. The VLPs are able to enter and deliver surface-displayed fluorescent dye into HEK293T cells via a surface-attached cell internalization peptide (VSV-G). The ease of manufacturing, the robust structure of these VLPs, and the straightforward conjugation provide a technology, which can be adapted to various applications in biomedicine.