Associations among vitamin D, tobacco smoke, and hypertension: A cross-sectional study of the NHANES 2001–2016

The interrelationships among vitamin D, tobacco smoking, and hypertension are currently unknown. This study was conducted to determine the relationship between vitamin D levels and hypertension and the effect of tobacco smoke exposure levels on this relationship among US adults. We performed a cross-sectional analysis of adult participants from the 2001–2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration was used as a biomarker of vitamin D status, and tobacco smoke exposure levels were objectively evaluated by serum cotinine levels. Among 22,875 eligible adults who were not receiving antihypertensive medications, the prevalence of hypertension, vitamin D deficiency (<50 mmol/L), and cotinine ≥3 ng/mL was 13.9%, 34.9%, and 29.4%, respectively. Serum cotinine and vitamin D levels were independently associated with hypertension risk after controlling for confounders ( P < 0.05). When stratified by the cotinine group (<0.05, 0.05–3 and ≥3 ng/mL), we found that the risk of hypertension associated with vitamin D deficiency was higher among subjects with cotinine levels ≥3 ng/mL compared with the other strata [OR (95% CI) 1.30 (1.09, 1.54) vs. 1.53 (1.19, 1.96) vs. 1.64 (1.30, 2.06); P for heterogeneity test <0.05]. Furthermore, serum cotinine levels were negatively correlated with vitamin D levels. These findings suggested that the increased risk of hypertension could be partly attributed to low vitamin D levels induced by tobacco smoke exposure, in addition to the effects of tobacco smoke exposure and vitamin D deficiency themselves.