Nurses' smoking in the workplace: causes and solutions.

Cigarette smoking has been called the primary cause of premature death and disability in the United States (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, [USDHHS], 1.982). Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor in the two leading causes of death-heart disease and cancer-in the United States (USDHHS, 1982). Since the link between smoking and illness was established, physicians and other health professionals have significantly reduced their own rates of smoking (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare [USDHEW], 1979). Moreover, the USDHEW Survey (1979) noted that nurses have not given up smoking in similar rates as physicians or dentists; 36% of nurses, 64% of physicians, and 61% of dentists have given up smoking. Over the past 15 years, researchers have reported that 25% to 29% of nurses smoke cigarettes (Elkind, 1979; Hillier, 1973; Knobf & Morra, 1983; Leathar, 1980; Small & Tucker, 1978; Tagliacozzo & Vaughn, 1982). These studies have addressed several factors; however, the factor receiving the most attention has been the effects of occupational stress on smoking within the nursing profession.