Applications of ultrasound streaming and radiation force in biosensors

Direct radiation force (DRF) and acoustic streaming provide the main influences on the behaviour of particles in aqueous suspension in an ultrasound standing wave (USW). The direct radiation force, which drives suspended particles towards and concentrates them in acoustic pressure node planes, has been applied to rapidly transfer cells in small scale analytical separators. The DRF also significantly increased the sensitivity of latex agglutination test (LAT) by concentrating the particles of an analytical sample in the pressure node positions and hence greatly increasing the antibody–antigen encounter rate. Capture of biotinylated particles and spores on a coated acoustic reflector in a quarter wavelength USW resonator was DRF-enhanced by 70- and 100-fold, respectively compared to the situation in the absence of ultrasound. Acoustic streaming has been successfully employed for mixing small analytical samples. Cavitation micro-streaming substantially enhanced, through mixing, DNA hybridization and the capture efficiency of Escherichia coli K12 on the surface of immunomagnetic beads. Acoustic streaming induced in longitudinal standing wave and flexural plate wave immuno-sensors increased the detection of antigens by a factor of five and three times, respectively. Combined DRF and acoustic streaming effects enhanced the rate of the reaction between suspended mixture of cells and retroviruses. The examples of a biochip and an ultrasonic immuno-sensor implementing the DRF and acoustic streaming effects are also described in the review.